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                             CHAPTER EIGHT

                      Part Four:  The Food Chapter
                      ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~


   Many of the rules in this chapter classify food into two groups:
   //bhojana// (consumables) and //khadiniya// (chewables).  Scholars
   usually translate the two as "softer food" and "harder food,"
   although the hardness and softness of a particular food have little
   to do with the category it belongs to.  A translation closer to the
   essence of each category would be "staple food" and "non-staple
   food."  The distinction between the two is important, for it is
   often the deciding factor between what is and is not an offense.
   Note, however, that the term //staple// here covers only what was
   considered staple in the time of the Buddha.  Bread, pasta, and
   potatoes, which are staples in the West, were not always staples in
   India at that time, and so do not always fit into this category.

     Staple foods are consistently defined as five sorts of foods,
   although the precise definitions of the first two are a matter of
   controversy.

     1) //Cooked grains//. The Vibhanga defines this as seven types of
   cooked grain, but there is disagreement on the identity of some of
   the seven.  They are //sali// (BD translates this as rice; the
   Thais, wheat); //vihi// (BD again has rice, and the Thais agree);
   //yava// (BD has barley; the Thais, glutinous rice); //godhuma// (BD
   has wheat; the Thais, tares); kangu// (both BD and the Thais
   identify this as millet or sorghum); //varaka// (BD doesn't identify
   this beyond saying that it is a bean; the Thais are probably right
   in identifying it as Job's tears); and //kudrusaka// (the Commentary
   states that this term covers all forms of grain that come from grass
   -- rye would be an example in the West).  Whatever the precise
   definitions of these terms, though, we could argue from the Great
   Standards that any grain cooked as a staple -- including corn
   (maize) and oats -- would fit into this category.

     2) //Kummasa//.  The Commentary says that this is a staple
   confection made out of //yava//, but doesn't describe it in any
   detail aside from saying that if the //kummasa// is made out of any
   of the other grains or mung beans, it doesn't count as a staple
   food.  References to //kummasa// in the Canon show that it was a
   very common staple that could form a rudimentary meal in and of
   itself and would spoil if left overnight.

     3) //Sattu//.  Any of the seven types of grain dried or roasted
   and pounded into meal.

     4) //Fish//.  The flesh of any animal living in the sea.

     5) //Meat//.  The flesh of any biped or quadriped, except for that
   which is unallowable.  The following types of meat are un-allowable:
   the flesh of human beings, elephants, horses, dogs, snakes, lions,
   tigers, leopards, bears, and hyenas (panthers).  Human beings,
   horses, and elephants were regarded as too noble to be used as food.
   The other types of meat were forbidden either on grounds that they
   were repulsive ("People were offended and annoyed and spread it
   about, 'How can these Sakyan contemplatives eat dog meat?  Dogs are
   loathsome, disgusting'") or dangerous (bhikkhus, smelling of lion's
   flesh, went into the jungle; the lions there were offended and
   annoyed and attacked them).

     To eat human flesh entails a thullaccaya; to eat any of the other
   unallowable types, a dukkata (Mv.VI.23.9-15).  If a bhikkhu is
   uncertain as to the identity of any meat presented to him, he incurs
   a dukkata if he doesn't ask the donor what it is (Mv.VI.23.9).

     Fish or meat, even if of an allowable kind, is unallowable if raw.
   Thus bhikkhus may not eat steak tartare, sashami, oysters on the
   half-shell, etc.  (Raw flesh and blood are allowed at Mv.VI.10.2
   only when one is possessed by non-human beings (!))  Furthermore,
   even cooked fish or meat of an allowable kind is unallowable if the
   bhikkhu sees, hears, or suspects that the animal was killed
   specifically for the purpose of feeding bhikkhus (Mv.VI.31.14).

     Non-staple foods are defined according to context:

     a) in Pacittiyas 35-38:  every edible outside of staple foods,
       juice drinks, the five tonics, and medicines (see below).
     b) in Pacittiya 40:  every edible outside of staple foods, water,
       and toothwood.
     c) in Pacittiya 41 (also the Bhikkhunis' Pacittiyas 44 & 54):
       every edible outside of staple foods, the five tonics, juice
       drinks, medicine, and conjey.

     The Commentary to Pacittiya 37 lists the following items as
   non-staple foods:  flour and confections made of flour (cakes, bread
   and pasta made without eggs would be classed here); also, roots,
   tubers (this would include potatoes), lotus roots, sprouts, stems,
   bark, leaves, flowers, fruits, nuts, seed-meal, seeds, and resins
   that are made into food.  Any of these items made into medicines,
   though, would not be classed as a non-staple food.

     The Commentary also makes reference to the fact that some
   societies use roots, tubers, confections made out of flour, etc., as
   staple foods, but it nowhere suggests that the definition of staple
   food be altered to fit the society in which one is living.  Thus in
   the West we are left with a somewhat zig-zag line separating what
   are and are not staple foods for the purposes of the rules:  Meal
   pounded from grain is a staple; flour ground from grain is not.
   Bread made with oat meal, corn meal, wheat germ, etc., would thus be
   a staple; bread made without any grain meal or eggs (see below)
   would not.  The same holds true for pastries, noodles, and pasta.

     This means that it would be possible for a donor to provide
   bhikkhus with a full, strictly vegetarian meal that would include
   absolutely no staple foods.  The wise policy in such a case, though,
   would be to treat the meal as if it did contain staple foods with
   reference to the rules (Pacittiya 33 & 35) that aim at saving face
   for the donor.

     Conjey, the watery rice porridge or gruel commonly drunk before
   almsround in the time of the Buddha, is classed differently
   according to context.  If it is so thick that it cannot be drunk and
   must be eaten with a spoon, it is regarded as a staple food
   (Mv.VI.25.7; Pacittiya 33).  "Drinking conjey" is classed as a
   non-staple food under Pacittiyas 35-38 & 40, whereas it is
   considered as neither a staple nor a non-staple food under Pacittiya
   41.  The Commentary notes, though, that if drinking conjey has bits
   of meat or fish "larger than lettuce seeds" floating in it, it is a
   staple food.

     Milk and curds are classed as "finer staple foods" under Pacittiya
   39.  In other contexts they fit under the definition of non-staple
   food.

     All other dairy products -- except for fresh butter and ghee when
   used as tonics (see NP 23) -- are non-staple foods.

     Eggs are not mentioned in the Vibhanga or Khandhakas.  Presumably
   they come under meat.  If so, raw eggs are unallowable; and bread,
   pastries, noodles, and pasta made with eggs are a staple food.

     In addition to staple and non-staple foods, the Vibhanga to the
   rules in this chapter mentions three other classes of edibles:
   juice drinks, the five tonics, and medicines.

     Juice drinks include the freshly squeezed juice of sugar cane,
   lotus root, all fruits except grain, all leaves except cooked
   vegetables, and all flowers except liquorice (Mv.VI.35.6).
   According to the Commentary, the juice must be strained, and may be
   warmed by sunlight but not heated over a fire.  (What category
   boiled juice would fit under, the Commentary does not say.  The
   Vinaya Mukha maintains that it would fit under sugar in the five
   tonics.)

     In discussing the Great Standards, the Commentary says that grain
   is a "great fruit," and thus the juice of any one of nine large
   fruits -- palmyra fruit, coconut, jackfruit, breadfruit, bottle
   gourd, white gourd, muskmelon, watermelon, and squash -- would fall
   under the same class as the juice of grain:  i.e., as a non-staple
   food and not a juice drink.  From this judgment, many Communities
   infer that the juice of //any// large fruit, such as pineapple or
   grapefruit, would also be classed as a non-staple food.

     The Commentary notes further that if a bhikkhu himself makes a
   juice drink from fruit, etc., he has received, it counts as a
   non-staple food and must be consumed before noon.

     The five tonics are discussed in detail under NP 23.

     Medicines.  According to the Mahavagga (VI.3.1-8), any items in
   the six following categories that, by themselves, are not used as
   staple or non-staple food are medicines:  roots, astringent
   decoctions, leaves, fruits, resins, and salts.  For example, under
   fruits:  Oranges and apples are not medicines, but pepper, nutmeg,
   and cardamom are.  Most modern medicines would fit under the
   category of salts.  Using the Great Standards, we can say that any
   edible that is used as a medicine but does not fit under the
   categories of staple or non-staple food, juice drinks, or the five
   tonics, would fit here.

     Keeping and consuming.  Each of the four basic classes of edibles
   -- food, juice drinks, the five tonics, and medicines -- has its
   "life span," the period during which it may be kept and consumed.
   Food may be kept and consumed until noon of the day it is received;
   juice drinks, until dawn of the following day; the five tonics,
   until dawn of the seventh day after they are received; and
   medicines, throughout one's life.

     Edibles made from ingredients that have different life spans --
   e.g., salted beef, honeyed cough syrup, sugared orange juice -- have
   the same life span as the ingredient with the shortest life span.
   Thus salted beef is treated as beef, honeyed cough syrup as honey,
   and sugared orange juice as orange juice (Mv.VI.40.3).

     Tonics and medicines, such as sugar and salt, received today may
   be eaten mixed with food or juice drinks received today, but not
   with food or juice drinks received on a later day.  Medicine, such
   as salt, tea, or cocoa, received at any time may be eaten mixed with
   any of the five tonics on any day of the tonic's life span
   (Mv.VI.40.3).



                                 * * *



       31.A bhikkhu who is not ill may eat one meal at a public
       alms center.  Should he eat more than that, it is to be
       confessed.

       "Now at that time a certain guild had prepared food at a
       public alms center not far from Savatthi.  Some group-of-six
       bhikkhus, dressing in the morning, taking their bowls and
       robes, entered Savatthi for alms but, after not getting any
       almsfood, went to the public alms center.  The people there
       said, 'At last the reverend ones have come,' and
       respectfully waited on them.  Then on the second day and the
       third day, the group-of-six bhikkhus, dressing in the
       morning, taking their bowls and robes, entered Savatthi for
       alms but, after not getting any almsfood went to the public
       alms center and ate.  The thought occurred to them, 'Why
       should we bother going back to the monastery?  Tomorrow
       we'll have to come right back here.'

       "So staying on and on right there, they ate the food of the
       public alms center.  The members of other sects fled the
       place.  People were offended and annoyed and spread it
       about:  'How can these Sakyan contemplatives stay on and on,
       eating the food of the public alms center?  The food at the
       alms center isn't meant just for them; it's meant for
       absolutely everybody.'"


   A //public alms center// is a place where all comers are offered as
   much food as they want, free of charge.  Soup kitchens and shelters
   for the homeless, if they are run in this way, would fit under this
   rule.  A //meal// is defined as one that includes any of the five
   staple foods.  //Not ill// in this rule is defined as being able to
   leave the alms center.

     The origin story seems to indicate that this rule is directed
   against staying on and eating day after day in the alms center.  The
   Commentary, though, maintains that it forbids eating in the center
   two days running, without making any mention of whether the bhikkhu
   stays on at the center or not.  To eat one day in a center belonging
   to one family (or group) and the next day in a center belonging to
   another group, it says, entails no penalty.

     Non-offenses.  According to the Vibhanga, there is no offense in
   taking a meal on the second day --

     if it does not include any of the five staple foods;
     if one is invited by the proprietors;
     if one is ill;
     if the food is specifically intended for bhikkhus (%); or
     if the center determines the amount of food the recipients may
       take, rather than allowing them to take as much as they want (%).
       The reason for this last allowance is that if the owners of the
       center were unhappy with having a bhikkhu eat there, they could
       give him very little or nothing at all.

     Also, there is no offense in taking a second meal when "coming or
   going," which in the context of the origin story seems to mean that
   one may take a second meal if one simply leaves the center and then
   comes back.  The Commentary, though, interprets this phrase as
   meaning "coming or going on a journey," and even here it says a meal
   should not be taken from the center two days running unless there
   are dangers, such as floods or robbers, that prevent one from
   continuing on one's way.

       Summary:  Eating food obtained from the same public alms
       center two days running, unless one is too ill to leave the
       center, is a pacittiya offense.



                                 * * *



       32.A group meal, except on the proper occasions, is to be
       confessed.  Here the proper occasions are these:  a time of
       illness, a time of giving cloth, a time of making robes, a
       time of going on a journey, a time of embarking on a boat,
       an extraordinary occasion, a time when the meal is supplied
       by contemplatives.  These are the proper occasions here.

   This is a rule dating from Devadatta's efforts to create a schism in
   the Sangha.

       "Now at that time Devadatta, his gain and honor lost, ate
       his meals having asked and asked for them among households
       with his friends.  (Here the Commentary elaborates:
       'Thinking, "Don't let my group fall apart," he provided for
       his friends by eating his meals among householders together
       with his friends, having asked for them thus: "You give food
       to one bhikkhu.  You give food to two."')  People were
       offended and annoyed and spread it about:  'How can these
       Sakyan contemplatives eat their meals having asked and asked
       for them among households?  Who isn't fond of well-prepared
       things?  Who doesn't like sweet things?'"

     Group meals.  The Vibhanga defines a //group meal// as one
   consisting of any of the five types of staple foods to which four or
   more bhikkhus are invited.  The Parivara (VI.2) adds that this rule
   covers any group meal that the donor offers at his/her own
   initiative, as well as any that results from a bhikkhu's requesting
   it.

     In the early days of the Buddha's career, donors who wished to
   invite bhikkhus to their homes for a meal would invite an entire
   Community.  Later, as Communities grew in size and there were times
   of scarcity in which donors were unable to invite entire Communities
   (Cv.VI.21.1), the Buddha allowed:

     1) //designated meals//, at which a certain number of bhikkhus
       were to be served.  The donors would ask the Community official
       in charge of meal distribution (//bhattuddesaka//) to designate
       so-and-so many bhikkhus "from the Community" to receive their
       meals.  Bhikkhus would be sent on a rotating basis to these meals
       as they occurred.
     2) //invitational meals//, to which specific bhikkhus were
       invited.
     3) //lot meals//, for which the bhikkhus receiving the meals were
       to be chosen by lot; and
     4) //periodic meals//, i.e., meals offered at regular intervals,
       such as every day or every uposatha day, to which bhikkhus were
       to be sent on a rotating basis, as with designated meals.  The
       bhattuddesaka was to supervise the drawing of lots and keep track
       of the various rotating schedules.  (The explanations of these
       various types of meal come partly from the Commentary.  For a
       fuller explanation, see Appendix III.)

     The no-offense clauses to this rule state that in addition to the
   exceptions mentioned in the rule, which we will discuss below, this
   rule does not apply to lot meals or periodic meals.  The Commentary
   concludes from this -- and on the surface it seems reasonable enough
   -- that the rule thus applies to meals to which the entire Community
   is invited and to invitational meals.  (Buddhaghosa reports that
   there was disagreement among Vinaya authorities as to whether or not
   it applies to designated meals -- more on this point below.)

     The Commentary's conclusion, though, creates a problem when lay
   people want to invite Communities of more than three bhikkhus to
   their homes for a meal.  Perhaps this problem is what induced the
   Commentary to interpret the Vibhanga's definition of group meal as
   meaning one in which the invitations specifically mention the word
   "meal," "food," or the type of meal or food to be served. ("Come to
   my house for breakfast tomorrow."  "I know you don't often get a
   chance to eat Indian food, so I'm inviting you all over for
   chappatties and curry.")  This interpretation has led to the custom
   of phrasing invitations to eat "in the morning" or to eat "before
   noon," so that groups of four or more bhikkhus may be invited
   without breaking this rule.

     The Buddha's purposes for establishing this rule, though, are
   listed at Cv.VII.3.13 as follows: "For the restraint of evil-minded
   individuals, for the comfort of well-behaved bhikkhus, so that those
   with evil desires will not split the Community by (forming) a
   faction, and out of compassion for householders."

     The Commentary's definition of //group meal// accomplishes none of
   the purposes:  The custom of phrasing invitations to avoid the word
   "food" or "meal" does nothing to restrain evil-minded individuals,
   etc., and it actually creates trouble for lay people who do not know
   the custom, a point well-illustrated by the Commentary itself in an
   entertaining section on how to deal with a person whose invitation
   contains the word "meal."  After getting the run-around from the
   bhattuddesaka -- who apparently was not allowed to tell him in any
   straightforward way how to phrase his invitation and so gave him a
   long series of hints -- the poor man returns to his friends and
   makes a cryptic statement that the A/Sub-commentary translates as:
   "There are a lot of words that have to be spoken in this business of
   making an invitation.  What's the use of them all?"

     Two other arguments against the Commentary's interpretation are:

     1) The Vibhanga's definition of //invited// in this rule is
       repeated word-for-word under Pacittiyas 33 & 46.  If the factor
       of mentioning "food" or "meal," etc., is necessary for there to
       be an offense under this rule, it would have to be necessary
       under those rules as well, a proposal that makes no sense in
       their context, and that no one has ever suggested.
     2) In the origin stories of two of the reformulations of the rule,
       bhikkhus refuse invitations on the grounds that they would break
       the rule against a group meal, and yet the invitations make no
       mention of "food" or "meal."

     An alternative interpretation.  To find an alternative to the
   Commentary's explanation, we have to go back to the origin stories
   leading to the reformulations of the rule, where we find an
   interesting point:  The invitations rejected by scrupulous bhikkhus
   on the grounds that they would break the rule all deal with
   "invitational" meals.  In one of them, a naked ascetic invites a
   group of bhikkhus to an invitational meal and is rejected on the
   grounds that it would constitute a group meal.  He then goes to the
   Buddha and -- after complaining that he should not be subjected to
   such treatment -- rephrases the invitation, this time inviting the
   entire Community.  This suggests that he felt an invitation of this
   sort would not constitute a group meal.

     His reasoning has its grounds in the Vinaya itself:  Throughout
   the Vibhanga and Khandhakas, the word "group" is used to refer to
   any set of bhikkhus not forming a complete Community and yet acting
   as an independent unit.  This may be why the category of Community
   meal was not mentioned in the no-offense clauses:  The arrangers of
   the Vibhanga may have felt that no mention was necessary, in that
   the term "group" meal automatically excluded Community meals.

     Similar considerations suggest that designated meals may also be
   exempted from this rule even though they are not mentioned in the
   no-offense clauses.  Invitations to such meals were customarily
   worded as requests for so-and-so many bhikkhus "from the Community,"
   and thus -- as a type of Community meal -- they would by definition
   not be invitations to a "group" meal.

     Since invitations to lot meals and periodic meals did not
   customarily make reference to the Community, the Vibhanga arrangers
   did have to make mention of those types of meals in order to exempt
   them.

     We are left with a rule that applies exclusively to invitations to
   specific groups -- not Communities -- of four or more bhikkhus
   regardless of whether or not the invitation mentions the word "food"
   or "meal."

     The rule in this form has the virtue of fulfilling the express
   purposes mentioned for it in the Cullavagga:  It would prevent
   evil-minded bhikkhus and lay people from trying to exert influence
   over specific groups in the Community by arranging meals especially
   for them; and in the same way, it would prevent people with evil
   desires from creating a split in the Community.  (Since the smallest
   faction that can create a split in the Community is four bhikkhus,
   the maximum number allowed at a group meal is three.)

     The rule in this form would also contribute to the comfort of
   well-behaved bhikkhus in that invitations to meals would not be
   pre-empted by factions; and it would protect householders from being
   prey to the maneuverings of bhikkhus who would try to arrange for
   such meals as part of their strategy to create and maintain such
   factions.  (Anyone who has lived in a traditional Buddhist country
   knows only too well the influence of sweet-talking bhikkhus over
   unsuspecting or low-minded lay people.  This sort of thing neither
   started nor ended with Devadatta.)

     Since Community meals and designated meals would not form an
   opening for such machinations, there would be no reason to limit
   them to groups of three if lay people want to invite groups larger
   than that.

     Thus the point at issue is not whether the invitation makes
   mention of food or meals, but whether it specifies the individual
   bhikkhus to be invited.  If it specifies more than three individual
   bhikkhus -- either naming them outright or saying such things as
   "Ven. X and four of his friends," or "The five of you," etc. -- the
   meal would count as a group meal.

     Effort.  To accept an invitation to a group meal entails a
   dukkata; and to eat it, regardless of whether one realizes that it
   is a group meal, a pacittiya.  Whether or not the bhikkhus actually
   eat together is not an issue.  If they receive their food at the
   same invitation to a group meal but then split up and eat it
   separately, they still incur the full penalty.

     Non-offenses.  The Vibhanga defines the //proper occasions//
   mentioned the rule -- during which bhikkhus may eat a group meal
   without committing an offense -- as follows:

     //A time of giving cloth// is the "robe season."

     //A time of making robes// is any time the bhikkhus are making
       robes.

     //A time of journeying// is any time the bhikkhus are about to go,
       are going, or have just returned from a journey of at least half
       a league (about five miles, or eight kilometers).

     //A time of embarking on a boat// is any time the bhikkhus are
       about to embark, are embarking, or are disembarking from a boat.
       No minimum distance for the boat journey is specified.

     //A time of illness// is, in its minimal terms, a time when the
       bhikkhus' feet are split (and they cannot go for alms).

     //An extraordinary occasion// is one in which there are so many
       bhikkhus in proportion to the donors giving alms that three
       bhikkhus going for alms can obtain enough food to support
       themselves, but not enough to support a fourth.

     //A meal supplied by contemplatives// is one provided by a person
       who has taken on the state of religious wanderer.  This the
       Commentary explains as meaning not only those ordained in other
       sects, but also one's own co-religionists (bhikkhus and
       samaneras) as well.  This interpretation, though, would
       completely negate the effect of the rule.  The word the Vibhanga
       uses for religious wanderer (//paribbajaka//) refers throughout
       the Canon to members of other sects and never to Buddhist
       bhikkhus, bhikkhunis, samaneras, etc.  We may safely assume that
       it carries the same range of meaning here.  This exemption, as
       its origin story makes clear, was formulated to promote good
       relations between bhikkhus and members of other sects.

     Aside from the proper occasions, there is no offense --

     if groups of three or less eat a meal to which they have been
       specifically invited;
     if the meal to which a group of four or more is invited does not
       include any of the five kinds of staple food; or
     if bhikkhus, having walked separately for alms, eat assembled as a
       group.

     No mention is made of whether or not bhikkhus can go for alms in
   groups of four or more, as is the custom at present in the rural
   areas of many Buddhist countries.  From the various stories of
   bhikkhus and bhikkhunis on almsround that appear in the Canon, it
   seems that the custom was for them to go individually.  Pacittiya 42
   mentions bhikkhus going for alms as a pair, but the Vibhanga notes
   that they might receive less food that way than when going
   individually.  Apparently, going as a group would not have made much
   sense in their cultural context.

     As mentioned above, the Vibhanga also states that there is no
   offense for groups of any number eating periodic meals or lot meals;
   and as we have already stated, our interpretation would explicitly
   extend this exemption to cover Community and designated meals as
   well.

       Summary:  Eating a meal to which four or more individual
       bhikkhus have been specifically invited -- except on special
       occasions -- is a pacittiya offense.



                                 * * *



       33. An out-of-turn meal, except on the proper occasions, is
       to be confessed.  Here the proper occasions are these:  a
       time of illness, a time of giving cloth (the robe season), a
       time of making robes.  These are the proper occasions here.

       "Now at that time a succession of meals of sumptuous foods
       had been arranged in Vesali.  The thought occurred to a
       certain poor laborer:  'The way these people respectfully
       present meals isn't a bad thing at all.  What if I were to
       present a meal?'  So he went to Kirapatika and said,
       'Master, I want to prepare a meal for the Community of
       bhikkhus with the Buddha at its head.  Please give me my
       wage.'  Now Kirapatika had faith and confidence in the
       Buddha, so he gave the laborer more than his wage.

       "Then the laborer went to the Blessed One, paid respect, sat
       down to one side, and said, 'May the Lord together with the
       Community of bhikkhus consent to a meal with me tomorrow.'

       "'You should be warned, friend, that the Community of
       bhikkhus is large.'

       "'Let it be large, Lord.  I have prepared plenty of jujube
       fruits.  The beverages will be full of jujube mixture.'

       "So the Blessed One consented by remaining silent....The
       bhikkhus heard, '...The beverages will be full of jujube
       mixture,' so right before the time of the meal, they went
       for alms and ate.  People heard, 'They say that the poor
       laborer has invited the Community of bhikkhus with the
       Buddha at its head,' so they took a great deal of staple and
       non-staple foods to the laborer....(When the time came for
       the meal) the Blessed One went to the poor laborer's house
       and sat on the appointed seat together with the Community of
       bhikkhus.  Then the poor laborer served the bhikkhus in the
       dining area.  The bhikkhus said, 'Just a little, friend.
       Give just a little.'

       "'Don't take so little, thinking that I'm just a poor
       laborer.  I have prepared plenty of staple and non-staple
       food.  Take as much as you want.'

       "'That's not the reason why we are taking so little, friend.
       Simply that we went for alms and ate just before the time
       for the meal:  //That's// why we are taking so little.'

       "The poor laborer was offended and annoyed and spread it
       about:  'How can these reverend ones eat elsewhere when they
       were invited by me?  Am I not capable of giving them as much
       as they want?'"


   Object. The term //out-of-turn meal// covers two sorts of
   situations:  A bhikkhu has been invited to a meal consisting of any
   of the five staple foods but then either (1) goes elsewhere and eats
   another meal consisting of any of the five staple foods at the same
   time as the meal to which he was originally invited; or (2) eats a
   staple food right before going to the meal, as in the origin story.

     Effort.  The Vibhanga states that there is a dukkata for accepting
   -- with the thought of eating it -- food that will constitute an
   out-of-turn meal, and a pacittiya for every mouthful one eats.
   Whether or not one perceives it as an out-of-turn meal, the offense
   is the same.

     Proper times.  The special occasions when one may accept and eat
   an out-of-turn meal are defined as follows:

     //A time of illness// is when one is unable to eat enough at one
       sitting and so has to eat two or more times in a morning.

     //The times of giving cloth// and //making robes// are defined as
       in the preceding rule.  The reason for exempting them is that in
       the days of the Buddha, cloth and thread were hard to come by,
       and donors who wanted to offer them usually did so in conjunction
       with a meal.  If these exemptions were not made, a bhikkhu making
       a robe, having already been invited to one meal, could not go to
       another meal beforehand to receive the cloth or thread offered
       there.

     There is reason to believe that these three exemptions apply to
   out-of-turn meals of the type mentioned in the origin story:  i.e.,
   a bhikkhu is allowed in these cases to go to another meal before
   attending the meal to which he was originally invited.

     Sharing invitations.  As for the sort of out-of-turn meal where a
   bhikkhu invited to one meal goes to another meal instead, the Buddha
   in a story ancillary to this rule gives permission to share
   invitations:  If a bhikkhu has received an invitation, he may give
   it to another bhikkhu or novice by saying, "I give my expectation of
   a meal to so-and-so."  He is then allowed to eat elsewhere.

     The Commentary regards the act of sharing as a mere formality:
   One may even make the statement outside of the other bhikkhu's
   presence without his knowing anything about it.  This, though, is
   very unlikely to satisfy the original donor.  The wise policy in
   this case would be to make the statement in the presence of the
   other bhikkhu -- "I give my expectation of a meal to you" -- making
   reasonably sure that he is willing and able to go.

     The Vinaya Mukha adds, though, that if the donors of the meal have
   specifically invited one to a meal -- i.e., one is going to an
   invitational meal rather than a designated meal (see Pacittiya 32)
   -- it would be bad manners to share the invitation without making an
   agreement with the donors first.

     Non-offenses.   In addition to mentioning the "proper times"
   during which one may eat an out-of-turn meal, the no-offense clauses
   state that there is no penalty for a bhikkhu who, on receiving an
   invitation, states, "I will go for alms."  This statement the
   Commentary explains as a refusal, and interprets the allowance as
   meaning that if a bhikkhu refuses an invitation, he is still allowed
   to eat another meal at the time for which the invitation was made.
   If the Vibhanga arrangers did mean this statement to be a refusal,
   though, it is probably for the sake of those bhikkhus who hold to
   the //dhutanga// vow of going for alms and not accepting
   invitations.  If a bhikkhu who does not hold to such a vow refuses
   an invitation for a time for which he has no prior commitment, it is
   considered very bad manners.  And if he were to later accept an
   invitation for a meal served at the same time as the meal he earlier
   refused, it would be extremely bad manners.

     An alternative explanation for the statement, "I will go for
   alms," is that there is no offense if the bhikkhu lets the donor
   know beforehand that he will go for alms before the meal:  He can
   have his alms meal first and then go to receive the meal offered by
   the donor.  This would make room for the custom common in village
   monasteries throughout Theravadin countries, where invitations are
   usually for the late-morning meal, and bhikkhus are expected to have
   an early-morning alms meal before that.  (If this interpretation
   does not hold, most village bhikkhus would then probably claim a
   perpetual "time of illness" as their exemption from this rule.)

     Meals that do not include any of the five staple foods are also
   exempted from this rule.  Thus if one is invited to a meal and takes
   a snack of milk, drinking conjey, fruit, etc., beforehand, this
   would not constitute an offense -- although to be in keeping with
   the spirit of the rule, one should not take so much as to spoil
   one's appetite for the meal.

     There is no offense if, when invited to more than one meal on the
   same day, one goes to them in the order in which one received the
   invitations (but see Pacittiya 35); if one puts the food from the
   various invitations together in one's bowl and eats them at the same
   time; or, if invited by an entire village, one goes to eat anywhere
   in the village.

     The Commentary, in discussing this point, mentions a situation
   that often occurs where there are very few bhikkhus in proportion to
   the number of donors:  A bhikkhu has been invited to a meal, but
   before he leaves the monastery to go to the meal, another group of
   donors arrives with food to place in his bowl; or after he arrives
   at the home of the original donor, another group of donors arrives
   with still more food.  According to the Commentary he may accept the
   food of these various donors as long as he is careful -- when he
   finally gets around to eating -- to take his first mouthful from the
   food offered by the original donor.

     Meals offered on a periodic basis and those for which bhikkhus are
   chosen by lot do not count as out-of-turn meals under this rule.
   The Canon offers no explanation for these last two exemptions, but
   the Commentary to Cullavagga VI shows that the custom was for many
   families to prepare such meals on the same day.  This exemption
   would thus seem to provide for the situation where there are fewer
   bhikkhus than there are families preparing these meals:  One bhikkhu
   would be allowed to accept more than one meal so that no family's
   meal would go without a recipient.

     A passage in the Mahavagga (VI.25.7) implies that if the donor of
   the meal provides a pre-meal snack of thick conjey -- or by
   extension any other staple food -- there would be no offense in
   eating it.  And the Commentary notes that if the donor gives
   explicit permission to eat another meal before the one he/she is
   providing, there would be no offense in doing so.

       Summary:  Eating a meal before going to another meal to
       which one was invited, or accepting an invitation to one
       meal and eating elsewhere instead, is a pacittiya offense
       except when one is ill or at the time of giving cloth or
       making robes.



                                 * * *



       34. In case a bhikkhu arriving at a family residence is
       presented with cakes or cooked grain-meal, he may accept two
       or three bowlfuls if he so desires.  If he should accept
       more than that, it is to be confessed.  Having accepted the
       two-or-three bowlfuls and having taken them from there, he
       is to share them among the bhikkhus.  This is the proper
       course here.

   The purpose of this rule is to prevent bhikkhus from abusing a
   donor's generosity and good faith.

     The origin story deals with two separate cases.  In the first, a
   woman named Kana is about to return to her husband's house after
   visiting her parents.  Her mother, thinking, "How can one go
   empty-handed?" bakes some cakes.  A bhikkhu comes, and the mother --
   being a faithful lay follower -- presents him with the cakes and
   then bakes some more to replace them.  The bhikkhu, meanwhile, has
   informed another bhikkhu that cakes are baking at Kana's house, so
   the second bhikkhu goes and receives the second batch of cakes.
   This process keeps up until Kana's husband tires of waiting for her
   and takes another woman for his wife.  The Commentary notes,
   reasonably enough, that Kana developed a long-term grudge against
   Buddhism as a result of this incident.

     In the second case, a man is preparing provisions for a journey by
   caravan.  A similar series of events takes place, and he eventually
   ends up tagging along behind the caravan and getting robbed.  People
   become offended and annoyed as usual, and spread it about, "How can
   these Sakyan contemplatives accept food without knowing moderation?"

     Object.  In the context of this rule, the Vibhanga defines
   //cakes// so as to cover anything prepared as a present, and
   //cooked grain-meal// (//sattu//) so as to cover anything prepared
   as provisions for a journey.  The word //journey// here refers to
   journeys that the donors are planning to take themselves.  This rule
   thus does not cover gifts of food that donors have prepared to give
   to a bhikkhu for a journey //he// is planning to take.

     The Vinaya Mukha, using the Great Standards, infers from the
   Vibhanga's definitions for cakes and cooked grain-meal that any food
   prepared in large quantities for sale or for a party, banquet, or
   reception, etc., should be covered by this rule as well.

     Protocol.  If the bhikkhu is presented with such things -- i.e.,
   invited to take as much as he likes -- he may take no more than two
   or three bowlfuls.  To take more than that would entail a pacittiya.
   Returning from there, he should tell every bhikkhu he sees, "I
   accepted two or three bowlfuls over there.  Don't you accept
   anything there."  He incurs a dukkata if, seeing a bhikkhu, he does
   not tell him, while there is a dukkata for the other bhikkhu if,
   having been told, he accepts anything at the place in question.
   According to the Commentary, if the first bhikkhu accepts two
   bowlfuls, he should tell the second bhikkhu to accept no more than
   one, and all other bhikkhus he meets that they should not accept
   anything.  If he accepts only one bowlful, he should follow a
   similar process so that, all-in-all, the bhikkhus accept a total of
   no more than three.

     The Commentary states further that a bhikkhu receiving two or
   three bowlfuls may keep one bowlful and do as he likes with it, but
   must share the remainder among an entire Community, i.e., not just
   among his friends.  A bhikkhu receiving only one bowlful may do with
   it as he likes .

     Non-offenses.  The Vibhanga states that there is no offense in
   taking more than three bowlfuls of items not intended as presents or
   provisions, of items left over from preparing presents or
   provisions, or of provisions remaining when plans for a journey have
   been abandoned.  As explained above, the Vinaya Mukha would include
   items prepared for sale or for parties, etc., under the word
   "provisions" here.

     The Vibhanga also says that there is no penalty in accepting more
   than three bowlfuls from relatives or from those who have offered an
   invitation.  Here the Commentary states that if such people give
   more than three bowlfuls outright, one may accept them without
   penalty, but if they tell one to take as much as one likes from
   items prepared as presents or provisions, the proper thing to do is
   to take only two or three bowlfuls.

     Also, there is no offense in having more than three bowlfuls of
   provisions purchased with one's own resources.

     Finally, the Vibhanga says that there is no offense in taking
   extra for the sake of another.  Neither the Commentary nor
   Sub-commentary discusses this point, but the only way it can make
   sense in the context of this rule is if it refers to cases where the
   bhikkhu takes extra for the sake of another not on his own
   initiative, but because the donor asks him to.

       Summary:  Accepting more than three bowlfuls of food that
       the donors prepared for their own use as presents or as
       provisions for a journey is a pacittiya offense.



                                 * * *



       35.Should any bhikkhu, having eaten and turned down an offer
       (of further food), chew or consume staple or non-staple food
       that is not left over, it is to be confessed.

       "Now at that time a certain Brahmin, having invited
       bhikkhus, gave them a meal.  The bhikkhus, having eaten and
       turned down an offer of further food, went to their
       relatives' families.  Some ate there, some left having
       received alms.

       "Then the Brahmin said to his neighbors, 'Masters, the
       bhikkhus have been satisfied by me.  Come and I will satisfy
       you as well.'

       "They said, 'Master, how will you satisfy us?  Even those
       you invited came to our homes.  Some ate there, some left
       having received alms.'

       "So the Brahmin was offended and annoyed and spread it
       about, 'How can their reverences, having eaten in my home,
       eat elsewhere?  Am I not capable of giving as much as they
       want?'"


   When a donor invited bhikkhus for a meal, the custom in the time of
   the Buddha was for him/her to offer food to the bhikkhus repeatedly
   while they ate, and to stop only when the supplies of food were
   exhausted or the bhikkhus refused any further offers.  (This custom
   is still widespread in Sri Lanka and Burma.)  Thus it was often a
   matter of pride among donors that their supplies were not easily
   exhausted and that they could continue offering food until the
   bhikkhus were completely satisfied and could eat no more.  Now where
   there is pride, there is bound to be wounded pride:  A donor could
   easily feel insulted if bhikkhus refused further offers of food,
   finished their meal, and then went to eat someplace else.

     As the origin story shows, this rule is designed to protect
   generous donors from being insulted by the bhikkhus in this way.  It
   is also designed to protect bhikkhus from being forced to go hungry
   by stingy or impoverished donors.  If the donor stops offering food
   before the bhikkhus have refused further offers -- or if what he/she
   offers is not substantial food at all (see the discussion under
   Pacittiya 8 for an historic case of this sort) -- the bhikkhus,
   after finishing their meal, are free to accept food elsewhere that
   morning if they are still hungry.

     Having eaten (//bhuttavi//), according to the Vibhanga, means
   having eaten any of the five staple foods, "even as much as a blade
   of grass."  On the surface, this could mean one of two things:
   having taken one's first bite of a meal, or having finished a meal
   -- even the smallest possible one.  The Commentary adopts the first
   interpretation, but in doing so creates two problems:

     1) If having eaten means having taken one's first bite of a meal,
       then the word serves no purpose in the rule, because the first
       factor of "having turned down an offer of further food" is "the
       bhikkhu is eating," and as the Commentary itself notes, if one is
       eating then one has already taken one's first bite of the meal.
       It concludes that the word "having eaten," both in the rule and
       in the Vibhanga, is completely superfluous.

     2) A more practical problem coming from the Commentary's
       interpretation is that if one turns down an offer of extra food
       when one already has more than enough food in one's bowl but has
       yet to finish one's meal, one cannot continue eating.  The
       Commentary tries to get around this predicament by introducing an
       additional factor:  As long as one does not move from the spot on
       which one is sitting, one may continue eating.  This, though,
       creates further problems:  Suppose a bhikkhu has turned down an
       offer of further food but has yet to finish his meal.  If there
       is then some compelling reason for him to move from the spot on
       which he is sitting -- for example, the donor spills a pot of hot
       soup, or ants come crawling into his robes -- then he cannot
       finish his meal even if the donor begs him to continue eating.

     The Sub-commentary gets around the first problem by interpreting
   "having eaten" as "having finished a meal," which fits better with
   the origin story and with the linguistic usage of the Vibhanga
   itself.  (There is a separate term, //asana//, for one who is in
   process of eating a meal without yet having finished it.)  The
   author of the Sub-commentary doesn't realize, though, that in
   adopting this interpretation he is also eliminating the need for the
   Commentary's extra factor concerning moving from one's spot.  If the
   factor is unnecessary, and there is no basis for it in the Canon,
   there would seem to be no reason to adopt it.  Thus the Commentary's
   factor, and not the wording of the rule, is what is superfluous.  So
   we can say that "having eaten" means having finished one's meal, and
   that the question of having moved from one's spot doesn't enter into
   the rule.

     As the Commentary itself notes when discussing the term //asana//,
   the point where one finishes eating is determined in one of two
   ways:

     a) There is no food left in one's bowl, hand, or mouth; or
     b) one has decided that one has had enough for that particular
       meal.

     Thus, as long as the bhikkhu has not yet finished the donor's
   meal, he is free to refuse, accept, and eat food as he likes.  In
   other words, if he refuses an offer of further food, he may continue
   eating what is left in his bowl.  If he initially refuses an offer
   of further food but then gives in and accepts it after being
   pressured by the donor, he may eat what he accepts without penalty.
   Or if he feels, for example, that he has enough vegetables but would
   like more rice, he may refuse an offer of vegetables yet accept and
   eat an offer of rice that follows it.

     But once he no longer has any food in his bowl, hand or mouth
   and/or has decided that he has had enough for that particular meal,
   he fulfills the factor of "having eaten" under this rule.  If he
   refused an offer of further food before finishing the meal, he may
   not for the remainder of the day eat any staple or non-staple foods
   that are not leftovers.

     Turning down an offer for further food.  The Vibhanga defines this
   as an act with five factors:

     1) The bhikkhu is eating.
     2) There is further staple food.
     3) The donor is standing within //hatthapasa// (1.25 meters) of
       the bhikkhu.
     4) He/she offers the food.
     5) The bhikkhu turns it down.

     The Commentary adds that if the bhikkhu has finished eating before
   the further food is offered, factor (1) is not fulfilled, so if he
   turns down the food he does not fall under the terms of this rule.
   Similarly, if the food in factor (2) is not a staple food -- e.g.,
   if it is fruit, chocolates, or cheese -- or if it is staple food of
   a sort unallowable for a bhikkhu to eat -- e.g., it has been offered
   as a result of a bhikkhu's claiming a superior human state or
   corrupting a family (see Sanghadisesa 13), or it is made of human
   flesh or snake meat, etc. -- the factor is not fulfilled.  Since
   none of the texts specify that the donor under factor (3) must be
   unordained, a bhikkhu offering food to a fellow bhikkhu would
   apparently fulfill this factor as well.  Thus this rule would apply
   not only to meals offered by lay donors, but also to food handed out
   by bhikkhus and samaneras in a monastery.

     Factor (5) is fulfilled by any refusal made by word or gesture.

     Staple & non-staple food.  Staple food, here, follows the standard
   definition.  Non-staple food, in the context of this rule, refers to
   all edibles except for the five staple foods, juice drinks, the five
   tonics, medicines, and water.

     Leftover food is of two sorts:  left over from a sick bhikkhu's
   meal, and formally "made" leftover by a bhikkhu who is not sick.  In
   the latter case, the formal act has seven factors:

     1) The food is allowable.
     2) Bhikkhu X has formally received it.
     3) He offers it to Bhikkhu Y.
     4) He remains within hatthapasa of Bhikkhu Y.
     5) Bhikkhu Y has finished his meal.
     6) Bhikkhu Y has not yet gotten up from the seat where he has
       finished his meal and refused further food; and
     7) he says, "I have had enough of all this."

     The Commentary notes that any bhikkhu except Bhikkhu Y may eat the
   food formally made left over in this way.

     Effort.  If a bhikkhu who, having eaten and turned down an offer
   for further food, is presented with staple or non-staple that is not
   left over -- e.g., a snack of milk or ice cream -- he incurs a
   dukkata if he accepts it with the thought of eating it, and a
   pacittiya for every mouthful he eats.

     Perception is not a factor here.  Whether or not the bhikkhu
   realizes that the food is not left over is irrelevant to the
   offense.  This point is what led to the following rule.

     Non-offenses.  There is no offense --

     if a bhikkhu accepts the food and takes it for the sake of
       another,

     if he accepts and eats left-over food, or

     if, having a reason, he later in the day accepts and consumes
       juice drinks, any of the five tonics, or medicine.  According to
       the Commentary, "having a reason" means, in the case of juice
       drinks, being thirsty; and in the case of the tonics and
       medicine, suffering from an illness that they are meant to
       assuage.  (As we have noted under NP 23, these illnesses include
       hunger and fatigue as well as medical disorders.)  In other
       words, a bhikkhu under the circumstances covered by this rule may
       not take these items as food.  The Vibhanga says that if he
       accepts them with the idea of taking them as food, he incurs a
       dukkata; while the Commentary imposes a further dukkata for every
       mouthful he eats.

     According to the Mahavagga (VI.14, VI.9.2, VI.20.4; V.32), this
   rule is relaxed during times of famine so that a bhikkhu who has
   eaten and turned down an offer for further food may later in the day
   consume food that is not left over:

     if it was accepted before he went to his meal,

     if it is brought back from a place where a meal has been offered,
       or

     if it has been taken from a wilderness area or a pond.  The texts
       offer no explanation for this last stipulation.  Perhaps, during
       famines, these were places where most people would be foraging
       for food.

       Summary:  Eating staple or non-staple food that is not
       left-over, after having earlier in the day finished a meal
       during which one turned down an offer to eat further staple
       food, is a pacittiya offense.



                                 * * *



       36.Should any bhikkhu, knowingly and wishing to find fault,
       present staple or non-staple food to a bhikkhu who has eaten
       and turned down an offer (for further food), saying, "Here,
       bhikkhu, chew or consume this" -- when it has been eaten, it
       is to be confessed.

       "Now at that time two bhikkhus were traveling through the
       Kosalan districts on their way to Savatthi.  One of them
       indulged in bad habits; the second one said, 'Don't do that,
       my friend.  It isn't proper.' The first one developed a
       grudge.  Eventually, they arrived at Savatthi.

       "Now at that time one of the guilds in Savatthi gave a meal
       to the Community.  The second bhikkhu finished his meal,
       having turned down an offer for further food.  The bhikkhu
       with the grudge, having gone to his relatives and bringing
       back alms food, went to where the second bhikkhu was staying
       and on arrival said, 'Here, friend, have some of this.'

       "'No thanks, my friend.  I'm full.'

       "'Really, this is delicious alms food.  Have some.'

       "So the second bhikkhu, being pressured by the first, ate
       some of it.  Then the bhikkhu with the grudge said to him,
       'You think //I'm// the one to be reprimanded when //you//
       eat food that isn't left over, after finishing your meal and
       turning down an offer for further food?'

       "'Shouldn't you have told me?'

       "'Shouldn't you have asked?'"


   This rule covers cases in which one bhikkhu, knowingly and wishing
   to find fault, offers food to another bhikkhu in order to trick him
   into committing an offense under the preceding rule.  The full
   offense here requires a full set of five factors:

     1) //Object//:  staple or non-staple food.
     2) //Effort//:  One gives the food to a bhikkhu who has turned
       down an offer of further food, as under the previous rule.
     3) //Perception//:  One knows that he has turned down an offer of
       further food.
     4) //Intention//:  One wishes to find fault with him.
     5) //Result//:  He accepts the food and eats from it.

     Only three of these factors -- object, intention, and result --
   require further explanation.

     Object. //Staple food//, here, follows the standard definition.
   //Non-staple food//, in the context of this rule, refers to all
   edibles except for the five staple foods, juice drinks, the five
   tonics, medicines, and water.  Whether or not the food is actually
   left over is not a factor in determining the offense here.  The
   important point lies in the perception:  As long as one assumes the
   food to be not left over, one is subject to a penalty if the other
   bhikkhu accepts it.  If one assumes the food to be left over, one's
   actions would not fit under this rule.

     Intention.  //Wishing to find fault//, according to the Vibhanga,
   means planning to accuse, criticize or shame the bhikkhu after one
   has succeeded in tricking him into breaking the preceding rule.

     Result.   Bhikkhu X, in giving food to Bhikkhu Y "knowingly and
   wishing to find fault," incurs a dukkata when Y accepts the food
   with the thought of eating it, and a pacittiya when Y has stopped
   eating from it.  If X then accuses or shames Y, he is to be treated
   under Pacittiya 2 as well.  As for Y, the Commentary notes, he
   doesn't escape the penalty under the preceding rule even though he
   has been tricked into the offense.  In other words, both bhikkhus in
   the origin story were right:  The bhikkhu with a grudge should have
   told the second bhikkhu, while the second bhikkhu should have asked.

     Non-offenses.  There is no offense --

     if one gives the other bhikkhu left-over food,
     if the other bhikkhu takes the food for the sake of another, or
     if one gives him juice drinks, any of the five tonics, medicines,
       or water.

     None of the texts make any mention of a bhikkhu trying to trick
   another bhikkhu into committing an offense under any rule other than
   Pacittiya 35; and apparently, a bhikkhu who tricks a fellow bhikkhu
   into committing an offense under Pacittiya 35 with no desire to
   blame or shame him, but simply for the perverse satisfaction of
   seeing him commit the offense, would incur no penalty under this or
   any other rule.  There is no escaping the fact, though, that such
   actions carry their own inherent penalty in terms of one's spiritual
   maturity.  This is one of those cases where we have to look past the
   particulars of the rule to the general principle underlying it:
   that one should not deliberately trick another person into breaking
   a rule or vow that he or she has pledged to uphold.

       Summary: Deliberately tricking another bhikkhu into breaking
       the preceding rule, in hopes of finding fault with him, is a
       pacittiya offense.



                                 * * *



       37.Should any bhikkhu chew or consume staple or non-staple
       food at the wrong time, it is to be confessed.

   Object.  //Staple food// here follows the standard definition given
   in the preface to this chapter.  //Non-staple food// refers to all
   edibles except for the five staple foods, juice drinks, the five
   tonics, medicines, and water.

     The wrong time.  The Vibhanga defines the //wrong time// as from
   after noon until dawn of the following day.  (See Appendix I for a
   discussion of how dawn is defined.)  Noon is reckoned as the moment
   the sun reaches its zenith, rather than by the clock -- in other
   words, by local rather than standard or daylight-savings time.
   Thus, for example, a bhikkhu who is offered food while traveling in
   an airplane should check the position of the sun in order to
   determine whether or not he may accept and eat it.  Some have argued
   that one may eat after noon if one has begun one's meal before noon,
   but the Commentary says explicitly that this is not the case.

     Effort.  The verbs //chew// and //consume// in the Pali of this
   rule are the verbs normally paired, respectively, with non-staple
   and staple foods. They both mean "to eat," but the question arises
   as to whether eating means going down the throat or entering the
   mouth.  This becomes an issue, for instance, when a bhikkhu has a
   piece of food stuck in his teeth from his morning meal and swallows
   it after noon.

     The Commentary generally defines eating as going down the throat,
   but a passage from the Cullavagga (V.25) suggests otherwise.  In it,
   the Buddha allows a ruminator who brings up food to his mouth at the
   "wrong time" to swallow it, and ends with the statement: "But food
   that has been bought out from the mouth should not be taken back in.
   Whoever should take it in is to be dealt with according to the rule
   (i.e., this rule and the following one)."  This suggests, then, that
   eating is technically defined as "taking into the mouth."

     Offenses.  A bhikkhu who, intending to eat it, accepts staple or
   non-staple food at the wrong time incurs a dukkata.  If he eats
   staple or non-staple food at the wrong time -- regardless of whether
   he accepted it at the right or wrong time -- he incurs a pacittiya
   for every mouthful he eats.  As for juice drinks, the five tonics,
   and medicine, there is a dukkata for accepting them to be used as
   food at the wrong time, and another dukkata for eating them as food
   at the wrong time.

     Perception is not a factor here.  Thus, a bhikkhu who eats food in
   the wrong time unknowingly -- e.g., assuming that noon has not
   passed when it actually has, or that the food belongs to one of the
   other classes of edibles when it actually doesn't -- commits an
   offense all the same.

     No exception is granted to an ill bhikkhu, because there are a
   number of edibles an ill bhikkhu may consume at the wrong time
   without involving an offense:  juice drinks, the five tonics, and
   medicines.  Also, there is an allowance in the Mahavagga (I.14.7)
   for a bhikkhu who has taken a purgative to take strained meat broth,
   strained rice broth, or strained green gram (mung bean) broth at any
   time of the day.  Using the Great Standards, we may say that a
   bhikkhu who has a similar illness or worse may take these broths at
   any time; and some have argued that other bean broths -- such as
   soybean milk -- would fit under the category of green gram broth as
   well.   However, unlike the case with the five tonics, mere hunger
   or fatigue would not seem to count as sufficient reasons for taking
   any of these substances in the "wrong time."

     A substance termed //lonasoviraka// (or //lonasociraka//) is
   allowed (Mv.VI.16.3) in the wrong time as a medicine for ill
   bhikkhus and, when mixed with water, as a beverage for bhikkhus who
   are not ill.  No one makes it anymore, but the recipe for it in the
   Commentary to Parajika 3 bears some resemblance to the recipe for
   //miso// (fermented soybean paste).  Some have argued, using the
   Great Standards, that the special allowance for this substance
   should extend to miso as well, but this is a controversial point.
   As far as I have been able to ascertain, miso is not used to cure
   diseases in adults even in China, which would be the place to look
   for its use as a medicine.  However, even if the allowance does
   apply to miso, taking miso broth as food in the wrong time would
   entail a dukkata.

     Non-offenses.  There is no offense if, having a reason, one
   consumes juice drinks, any of the five tonics, medicine, or water
   after noon or before dawn.

       Summary: Eating staple or non-staple food in the period
       after noon until the next dawn is a pacittiya offense.



                                 * * *



       38.Should any bhikkhu chew or consume stored-up staple or
       non-staple food, it is to be confessed.

   This is one of the few rules where the original instigator was an
   arahant:  Ven. Belatthasisa, Ven. Ananda's preceptor and formerly
   the head of the 1,000 ascetics who attained Awakening on hearing the
   Fire Sermon.  The origin story here reports that he made a practice
   of keeping left-over rice from his alms-round, drying it, and then
   moistening it to eat on a later day.  As a result, he only rarely
   had to go out for alms.  Even though he was doing this out of
   frugality rather than greed, the Buddha still rebuked him.  The
   story doesn't give the precise reasons for the rebuke.  Perhaps it
   was because he saw that such behavior would open the way for
   bhikkhus to avoid going on almsround, thus depriving themselves of
   the excellent opportunity that alms-going provides for reflecting on
   their dependency on others and on the human condition in general;
   and depriving the laity of the benefits that come from daily contact
   with the bhikkhus and the opportunity to practice generosity of the
   most basic sort every day.  Although frugality may be a virtue,
   there are times when other considerations supercede it.

     At any rate, the Buddha showed great foresight in formulating this
   rule.  Over the centuries, whenever bhikkhus have lived in
   Communities where vast stores of food were kept -- such as the great
   Buddhist universities in India -- bhikkhus have tended to grow lax
   in their practice, and a gulf of misunderstanding and suspicion has
   come to separate them from the laity.

     Object.  //Staple food// here, as usual, follows the standard
   definition given in the preface to this chapter.  //Non-staple
   food// here includes all edibles except for the five staples, juice
   drinks, the five tonics, medicine, and water.

     //Stored-up// means formally accepted by a bhikkhu (see Pacittiya
   40, below) on one day and eaten on the next or a later day.  The
   boundary between one day and the next is dawn.

     According to the Commentary, though, if a bhikkhu accepts food
   today but then gives it to an unordained person, having abandoned
   possession of it in his mind, and then the person happens to present
   it again to that bhikkhu or to another bhikkhu on a following day,
   it does not count as stored-up under this rule.  If, however, the
   bhikkhu does not abandon possession of the food in his mind, and the
   unordained person presents it again the following day, it still
   counts as stored-up even if the bhikkhu did not say with word or
   gesture that the food was to be kept and presented to him again.

     Since this factor is difficult to determine with absolute
   certainty in cases where food is left over after being presented to
   a number of bhikkhus -- there is hardly any way of being sure that
   they have all renounced possession of the leftovers -- many
   Communities ignore the Commentary's allowance and do not permit
   their members to accept any food at all that they formally received
   on a previous day.

     The story of the Second Council (Cv.XII.2.8) shows that this rule
   also forbids storing such medicines as salt (or pepper, vinegar,
   etc.) to add to any bland food one might receive on a later day.
   (See the discussion preceding Pacittiya 30 for more details on this
   subject.)

     Effort.  The Vibhanga says that there is a dukkata "if one accepts
   it, thinking, 'I will eat it'" -- the Commentary interprets this as
   taking or accepting, with the purpose of eating, food that has been
   stored up -- and a pacittiya for every mouthful one eats.

     Perception is not a factor here.  Thus, a bhikkhu who eats
   stored-up food commits an offense regardless of whether or not he
   perceives it as stored-up.  This means --

     1) If Bhikkhu X receives the food on one day and, without
       renouncing possession of it, lets someone else put it away, and
       Bhikkhu Y eats it on a later day, Y commits an offense all the
       same, regardless of whether or not he knows that the food was
       stored-up.

     2) One should be careful that there are no traces of any edible
       received yesterday on a utensil from which one will eat food
       today.  The duties a student should perform for his preceptor
       (//upajjhaya-vatta//) (Mv.I.25.9) show that the custom in the
       Buddha's time was to rinse out one's bowl before going for alms.
       The Commentary suggests a method for making sure that one's bowl
       is clean:  Run a finger along the inside of the bowl while it is
       dry.  If there is enough food residue or dust in the bowl for the
       finger to make a mark in it, clean the bowl again before use.

     Derived offenses.  If a bhikkhu accepts or takes, for the sake of
   food, juice drinks, any of the five tonics, or medicine that has
   been stored overnight, there is a dukkata in the taking, and another
   dukkata for every mouthful he eats.  The Commentary, though, asserts
   that when a bhikkhu takes, not for food but simply to assuage his
   thirst, a juice drink stored overnight, he incurs a pacittiya for
   every swallow he drinks.

     It seems strange that drinking the juice simply as juice would
   entail a stronger penalty than taking it as food, and as there is no
   basis anywhere in the Canon for the Commentary's assertion, there
   seems to be no reason to adopt it.  Mv.VI.40.3 states clearly that
   juice drinks, taken for any reason, are allowable at any time on the
   day they are accepted, but not after the dawn of the following day.
   No specific penalty is given for taking them on the following day,
   but we can infer from the Vibhanga to this rule that the penalty
   would be a dukkata.

     Non-offenses.  There is no offense in the mere act of storing
   food.  A bhikkhu going on a journey with an unordained person may
   thus carry the latter's food -- while the latter carries the
   bhikkhu's food -- without committing an offense.

     There is also no offense in telling an unordained person to store
   food that has not been formally received.  For example, if donors
   simply leave food at a bhikkhu's residence without formally
   presenting it, the bhikkhu may tell a novice or lay person to take
   it and put it away for a later day.  If the food is then presented
   to the bhikkhu on a later day, he may eat it that day without
   penalty.

     However, food may be stored in a monastery only in a building
   formally agreed on for the purpose (Mv.VI.33.2).  Since bhikkhus may
   not use such a building as a dwelling place (Mv.VI.33.4), a bhikkhu
   who has food stored in his dwelling would incur a dukkata.  He may,
   however, store medicines or the five tonics in his dwelling without
   penalty.

     If a bhikkhu accepts, sets aside, and then eats any of the four
   kinds of edibles all within their permitted time periods -- e.g., he
   receives bread in the morning, sets it aside, and then eats it
   before that noon; or receives honey today, sets it aside, and takes
   it as a tonic tomorrow -- there is no offense.

     This rule makes no exceptions for a bhikkhu who is ill, although
   the rule as a whole is suspended when there is scarcity and famine,
   and reinstated when the scarcity and famine have passed.
   (Mv.VI.17-20; Mv.VI.32).

       Summary: Eating food that a bhikkhu -- oneself or another --
       formally received on a previous day is a pacittiya offense.



                                 * * *



       39.There are these finer staple foods, i.e., ghee, fresh
       butter, oil, honey, sugar/molasses, fish, meat, milk, and
       curds.  Should any bhikkhu who is not ill, having asked for
       finer staple foods such as these for his own sake, then eat
       them, it is to be confessed.

   The Vibhanga defines //finer staple foods// as any of the nine foods
   mentioned in the rule, either on their own or mixed with other
   foods.  Thus milk and milk-mixed-with-cereal would both be finer
   staple foods.  The ancient commentators, though, must have objected
   to including some of these items under the category of staple food
   (//bhojana//), so we have the Commentary defining "finer staple
   foods" as any of the substances mentioned in the rule mixed with any
   one of the seven types of grain.  Thus, it would say, milk with
   cereal would be a finer food, but milk on its own would not.

     As we have seen, though, the Vibhanga defines its terms to fit
   with the situation covered by each particular rule and is not always
   consistent from one rule to another.  Thus, since the Vibhanga is
   not at fault for being inconsistent here, there is no reason to
   follow the Commentary in deviating from it.  The rule means what it
   says:  It covers each of the foods mentioned in it, whether pure or
   mixed with other ingredients.

     The first five of these finer foods are discussed in detail under
   NP 23. //Fish// and //meat// are discussed in the preface to this
   chapter.  //Milk and curds// here refers to milk and curds from
   animals whose flesh is allowable.  The Sub-commentary, in discussing
   this point, maintains that tiger's milk, bear's milk, etc., are not
   unallowable, simply that they would not come under this rule.  This
   is an interesting idea, but was included probably just to wake up
   sleepy students in the back of the room.

     According to the Commentary, any food other than these nine finer
   foods is grounds for a dukkata under Sekhiya 37.

     Effort.  A bhikkhu who is not ill, requesting the foods for his
   own use, incurs a dukkata for every request he makes, a dukkata for
   accepting the food, and a pacittiya for every mouthful he eats.

     //Not ill// means that one is able to fare comfortably without
   these foods.  None of the texts go into detail on this point, but
   //ill// probably means something more than simply being hungry, for
   there is a separate allowance under Sekhiya 37 for a bhikkhu who is
   hungry to ask for rice and bean curry, which was the basic diet of
   the day, and the Commentary extends the allowance to cover all foods
   not covered by this rule.  Here //ill// probably refers to any form
   of fatigue, weakness, or malnutrition that comes specifically from
   lacking any of the foods mentioned in the rule.

     The Commentary adds that if a bhikkhu asks for one kind of finer
   food but receives another kind instead, he incurs the dukkata for
   asking, but no penalty for accepting and eating what he gets.  It
   also notes that when a bhikkhu asks a lay person for any of the
   finer foods, and the lay person makes a donation of money to the
   bhikkhu's steward to buy that food, then once the food is bought it
   comes under this rule all the same.

     Non-offenses.  There is no offense:

     in asking for food -- any kind of food -- when one is ill, and
       then eating it, even if one has recovered in the meantime;
     in eating food that has been requested for the sake of an ill
       bhikkhu and is left over after his meal;
     in asking from relatives;
     in asking from those who have offered an invitation to ask;
     in asking for the sake of another person; or
     in asking that food be bought with one's own resources.

     Also, according to the Mendaka Allowance (Mv.VI.34.21), a bhikkhu
   going on a journey through a wilderness area where alms food is
   difficult to obtain may search for provisions of husked rice, kidney
   beans, green gram (mung beans), salt, sugar, oil, and ghee for the
   journey.  The Commentary says, though, that he should first wait for
   spontaneous offerings of these provisions from people who learn of
   his plans for the journey.  If these aren't forthcoming, he should
   ask from his relatives or from those who have given him an
   invitation to ask, or else see what he gets on his almsround.  (This
   last alternative apparently applies to the salt, sugar, oil, and
   ghee; people ordinarily would not be giving uncooked rice, beans, or
   green gram for alms.)  Only when these avenues fail should he ask
   from people who are unrelated to him and have not given an
   invitation to ask.  Furthermore, he should ask for no more than the
   journey will require.

     None of the texts mention any permission for the bhikkhu, after he
   has searched for the provisions, to store them longer than usual or
   to cook them in any way.  Apparently, they expect him to arrange for
   an unordained person -- or people -- to accept the provisions and be
   responsible for their storage and preparation while on the road.

       Summary:  Eating finer foods, after having asked for them
       for one's own sake -- except when ill -- is a pacittiya
       offense.



                                 * * *



       40.Should any bhikkhu take into his mouth an edible that has
       not been given -- except for water and tooth-cleaning sticks
       (%) -- it is to be confessed.

       "Now at that time a certain bhikkhu, living entirely off of
       what was thrown away, was staying in a cemetery.  Not
       wanting to receive gifts from people, he himself took the
       offerings for the dead -- left in cemeteries, under trees,
       and on thresholds -- and ate them.  People were offended and
       annoyed and spread it about, 'How can this bhikkhu himself
       take our offerings for the dead and eat them?  He's robust,
       this bhikkhu.  He's strong.  Perhaps he feeds on human
       flesh.'"


   Object.  An //edible// is whatever is fit to eat, and includes all
   four classes of food and medicine:  staple and non-staple foods,
   juice drinks, the five tonics, and medicine.

     Exceptions.  //Water//, according to the Commentary, includes ice,
   hailstones, and snow as well.  Whether such things as boiled water,
   bottled water, and man-made ice should also come under this
   exception is a controversial point, because such things are no
   longer in their natural state and in some instances carry a price.
   The texts offer no specific guidance here, so this is an area where
   the wise policy is to follow the dictates of one's Community.  If
   one happens to belong to a Community that allows one to take these
   items when they are not formally given, one should still be careful
   to take them only when they are clearly intended for one's use or
   the Community's use in instances where they carry a price.

     //Tooth-cleaning sticks//, as used in the time of the Buddha, were
   semi-edible.  They were sticks of soft wood, like balsam, cut four
   to eight inches long, chewed until they were reduced to fiber and
   spat out.  People in India still use tooth-cleaning sticks of this
   sort even today.

     Here again there is a controversy as to whether toothpaste comes
   under this exception as well.  On the one hand it fits in with the
   pattern for tooth-cleaning sticks -- it is semi-edible and not
   intended to be swallowed -- but on the other hand it contains
   substances, such as mineral salts, that the Canon classes as
   medicines (Mv.VI.8).  This second consideration would seem to
   override the first, since it is a question of following what is
   explicitly laid out in the Canon, rather than of applying the Great
   Standards.  Thus the wise policy would seem to be to regard it as a
   medicine that has to be formally given before it can be used, and
   not as coming under this exception.

     The act of giving food and other edibles, as described in the
   Vibhanga, has three factors:

     1) The donor (an unordained person) is standing within reach (one
       hatthapasa, or 1.25 meters) of the bhikkhu.
     2) He/she gives the item with the body (e.g., the hand), with
       something in contact with the body (e.g., a spoon), or by means
       of letting go.  According to the Commentary, //letting go// means
       releasing from the body or something in contact with the body --
       e.g., dropping from the hand or a spoon -- and refers to such
       cases as when a donor drops or tosses something into a bhikkhu's
       bowl or hands without directly or indirectly making contact.
     3) The bhikkhu receives the item with the body or with something
       in contact with the body (e.g., his bowl, a piece of cloth).

     There is a tradition in Thailand that a bhikkhu should never
   receive an offering from a woman hand-to-hand.  Either she must
   offer it with something in contact with her body (e.g., a tray) or
   the bhikkhu must accept it with something in contact with his body:
   an alms bowl, a tray, a piece of cloth, etc.  Apparently this
   tradition arose as a means of protecting a sexually aroused bhikkhu
   from committing an offense under Sanghadisesa 2, or from the
   embarrassment that might arise if, say, yesterday he was not aroused
   and so could take something straight from her hand, while today he
   is and so can't.  Many Thai eight-precept nuns, even though they
   don't have any precepts corresponding to Sanghadisesa 2, follow a
   reciprocal tradition of not receiving anything hand-to-hand from a
   man.  Neither of these traditions is mentioned in the Canon or the
   commentaries, nor are they observed by Sri Lankan or Burmese
   bhikkhus or nuns.

     A special allowance in the Cullavagga (V.26) states that if food
   accidentally falls while being offered, a bhikkhu may pick it up
   himself and eat it without committing an offense.

     Effort.  If a bhikkhu realizes that food is not given or
   improperly given, he incurs a dukkata if he takes it with the
   intention of eating it.  As for the bhikkhu who thinks that it is
   properly given when it isn't, the Vibhanga does not say whether he
   incurs a penalty in taking it with the intention of eating it or
   not.  The Commentary says explicitly that he doesn't.  In either
   case, though, the Vibhanga states that the bhikkhu incurs a
   pacittiya for every mouthful he eats.  Thus perception is not a
   mitigating factor when determining the full offense under this rule.

     Non-offenses.  There is an allowance (Mv.VI.17.8-9; Mv.VI.32) that
   in times of scarcity and famine a bhikkhu may pick up fallen fruit,
   take it to an unordained person, place it on the ground, and have it
   formally "given" without committing an offense.  At times when this
   allowance is not in effect, though, a bhikkhu who -- with the
   intention of eating it -- picks up an edible he knows has not been
   given may not later make it allowable by formally "receiving" it
   from an unordained person.  Whether other bhikkhus may receive it
   and make use of it, though, is a controversial point discussed in
   the Commentary in a treatise separate from its explanation of the
   Vibhanga (see below).

     In the Mahavagga (VI.14.6), the Buddha gives permission for a
   bhikkhu bitten by a snake to make an antidote of urine, excrement
   (burned in fire), ashes, and soil.  If there is no unordained person
   present who can or will make these things allowable, the bhikkhu may
   take and prepare them himself, and then eat them without incurring a
   penalty under this rule.  The Commentary adds that if he cuts a tree
   under these circumstances to burn it, or digs the earth to get soil,
   he is exempt from the rules dealing with those actions as well.

     //Controversial points from the Commentary//.   As mentioned
   above, the Commentary's discussion of this rule includes a treatise
   separate from its explanation of the Vibhanga, dealing with
   controversial points for which the Canon gives unclear answers or no
   answers at all.  Since the treatise is a compilation of the opinions
   of various teachers and does not pretend to explain the meaning or
   intent of the Buddha's words -- and since the Buddha warned bhikkhus
   against making up their own rules (NP 15.1.2) -- the opinions
   expressed in the treatise are not necessarily normative.  Many
   Communities do not accept them, or are selective in choosing what
   they do and do not accept.  Here we will give a summary of some of
   the Commentary's opinions that have influenced practices found in
   some, if not all, Communities of bhikkhus at present.

     1. Taking into the mouth is defined as going down the  throat.  As
   we have already noted under Pacittiya 37, though, this definition
   has no justification in canonical usage.  The Sub-commentary
   attempts to justify the Commentary's stand here by defining "mouth"
   (literally, the door of the face) as the larynx, i.e., the back door
   rather than the front door to the mouth, but again this is not
   supported by the Canon.  Sekhiya 41 -- "I will not open the door of
   my face when the mouthful has yet to be brought to it" -- shows
   decisively that this term refers to the lips and not to the larynx.
   "Taking into the mouth" thus means taking in through the lips.

     2. Food.  Pond water so muddy that it leaves a scum on the hand or
   on the mouth is considered to be food, and so must be given before
   it can be drunk.  The same holds true with water into which so many
   leaves or flowers have fallen that their taste is discernible in the
   water.  For some reason, though, water that has been scented with
   flowers need not be given, and the same is true with water taken
   from a stream or river no matter how muddy.  (There is a belief
   still current in India and other parts of Asia that flowing water is
   inherently clean.)  Although leaves and flowers technically do count
   as edibles -- they are classed as non-staple foods or medicines,
   depending on one's purpose in eating them -- the idea of counting
   mud and scum as edibles seems to be taking the concept of edible a
   little too far.

     If toothwood is chewed for the sake of its juice, it must first be
   given.  Even if one is chewing it for the sake of cleaning the
   teeth, but accidentally swallows the juice, one has committed an
   offense all the same.  These two opinions have no basis in the
   Canon, since intention is not a factor in determining the offense
   under this rule.

     A long section of this treatise discusses what to do if things
   that are not given get into food that has been given.  It concludes
   that they must either be removed from the food, or the food must be
   given again.  If the items "not given" are edibles, this seems
   reasonable enough, but the Commentary extends the concept to include
   such things as dust, dirty rain water, rust from a knife, beads of
   sweat dropping from one's brow, etc.  Again, this seems to be taking
   the concept too far, for the Vibhanga states clearly that the rule
   covers only those things generally considered as fit to eat.

     3. Giving.  The Commentary redefines the act of giving, expanding
   its factors to five:

     (a) The item is such that a man of average stature can lift it.
     (b) The donor is within reach (1.25 m.) of the bhikkhu.
     (c) He/she makes a gesture of offering the food.
     (d) The donor is a celestial being, a human being, or a common
       animal.
     (e) The bhikkhu receives the item with the body or with something
       in contact with the body.

     //Factor (a)// was included apparently to discourage the practice,
   still found in many places, of getting two or more men to present a
   table of food to a bhikkhu by lifting the entire table at once. The
   inclusion of this factor, though, has given rise to the assumption
   that the donor must lift the food a certain distance before handing
   it to the  bhikkhu, but the Commentary itself shows that this
   assumption is mistaken, for it states that if a small novice too
   weak to lift a pot of rice simply slides it along the table or floor
   onto a bhikkhu's hand, it is properly given.

     //Factor (b)//:  If any part of the donor's body (except for
   his/her extended arm) is within 1.25 meters of any part of the
   bhikkhu's body (except for his extended arm), this factor is
   fulfilled.  If the donor is standing beyond reach, the bhikkhu
   should tell him/her to come within reach before donating the food.
   If for some reason the donor does not comply with the bhikkhu's
   request, the bhikkhu may still accept the food, but should then take
   it to another unordained person -- without setting it down and
   picking it up again in the meantime (see below) -- and have it
   properly "given" before eating it.

     Although the donor must be within reach, the food itself need not
   be.  Thus if the donor places many vessels on a mat while the
   bhikkhu touches the mat with the intention of receiving them, all of
   the food is considered to be properly received as long as the donor
   is within reach of the bhikkhu.  The same holds true if the donor
   places many vessels touching one another while the bhikkhu touches
   one of the vessels with the intention of receiving them all.  (The
   factor of the bhikkhu's intention is discussed further under factor
   (e) below.)

     //Factor (c)// means that the donor cannot simply tell the bhikkhu
   to take the food being given.  Rather, he/she should make a physical
   gesture of offering the food.  In some places, this factor is
   interpreted as meaning that the donor must assume a humble or
   respectful manner while making the offering, and has led some to
   believe, for instance, that a bhikkhu going barefoot on his alms
   round should not accept food from a donor wearing shoes.  This view
   is not supported by the Commentary.  Although some of the gestures
   it cites as examples, such as tilting the head, might be interpreted
   as showing respect, some of them are not respectful in terms of
   Asian etiquette at all.  For instance, a person riding on the
   bhikkhu's shoulders picks a piece of fruit from a tree, drops it
   into his hands, and it is considered properly given.

     The question arises as to how much of a gesture is necessary for
   this factor to be fulfilled.  In the West, if a donor brings a tray
   of food and stands in front of a bhikkhu, waiting for him to take
   some of the food, the fact that he/she stands there waiting would be
   considered enough of a gesture to show that the food is being given.
   If the bhikkhu were to demand more of a gesture than that, the donor
   would probably be offended.  Since, as we have noted, the opinions
   expressed in this section of the Commentary are not necessarily
   normative, this is an area where one can make allowances for
   cultural norms.  The essence of this factor would seem to be that a
   bhikkhu should not snatch food that a person happens to be carrying
   past him without showing any indication that he/she wants him to
   take the food.

     //Factor (d)// is not discussed by the Commentary, although it is
   probably inspired by such stories as that of elephants offering
   lotus stalks to Ven. Moggallana, and of Sakka, the king of the
   deities, presenting a gift of food to Maha Kassapa after the latter
   had withdrawn from seven days of concentration.  There is at least
   one bhikkhu in Thailand today who has trained a pet monkey to "give"
   him things.

     //Factor (e)//:  The effort involved in receiving the item may be
   minimal indeed.  In fact, the Commentary's discussion of the
   Vibhanga quotes the Mahapaccari, one of the ancient Sinhalese
   commentaries, as saying that attention is the measure determining
   whether or not food has been received.  Thus if a donor offers food
   by placing it on a table, the bhikkhu may simply touch the table
   with his finger, thinking, "I am receiving the food," and it is
   properly given.  The same holds true if he is sitting on the  table
   or lying on a bed and regards the act of sitting or lying there as
   one of receiving whatever is placed there.  However, immovable
   objects -- such as a floor, the ground, or anything fixed to the
   floor or ground -- may not be used as "items connected to the body"
   to receive food in this way.

     Food placed in a bhikkhu's hand when he is asleep or his attention
   is elsewhere, e.g., in deep meditation, does not count as properly
   given.  He must be awake and paying enough attention to know that
   the food is being given for this factor to be fulfilled.  Food
   placed in a bhikkhu's mouth is considered properly given if he is
   awake.  If he is asleep or unconscious and  food is put into his
   stomach via a feeding tube, he has not broken this rule for he is
   not the agent putting it there, and as the Sub-commentary notes
   under Sanghadisesa 1, the Vinaya does not apply to a bhikkhu when he
   is not in a normal, waking state of awareness.

     4. Taking food that has not been given.  To take food knowing that
   it has been improperly given or not given at all (here we are not
   talking about cases of stealing) is no offense if the bhikkhu has no
   intention of eating it.  If, after he has set it down, the food is
   later "given" to him, he may accept and eat it with no penalty.
   Here the examples given in the Commentary include such things as
   picking up fallen fruit or the remains of a lion's kill with the
   thought of taking them for a novice to eat, or picking up oil or
   ghee with the thought of taking it to one's parents.  A common
   example at present would be picking up food left lying around when
   one is cleaning up the monastery.  The Sub-commentary states that
   this allowance does not hold if one is thinking of taking the food
   for other bhikkhus to eat.

     To take food with the purpose of eating it, thinking that it has
   been properly given when in fact it hasn't, is also no offense.  If
   one then learns or realizes that it has not been properly given, one
   should return it -- if possible, to its original place -- without
   setting it down and picking it up again in the meantime.  Once the
   food is back in its original place, one may "receive" and eat it
   with no penalty.  If one sets it down and picks it up again before
   returning it to its original place, though, then technically one
   incurs a dukkata for taking food that one realizes is not properly
   given, and so one may not later formally receive the food, as
   mentioned above.  If for some reason there is no possibility of
   returning the food to its original place, one need only return it to
   some other spot in the building from which it was taken and then
   "receive" and eat it without committing an offense.

     To take food with the purpose of eating it, knowing that it has
   not been properly given, entails a dukkata, as stated in the
   Vibhanga.  According to the Commentary's treatise, "taking" here
   also includes deliberately touching the food or the vessel
   containing it with the intention of eating it.  (Touching it
   accidentally it carries no penalty.)  If a bhikkhu deliberately
   touches it in this way, he may not then properly receive it,
   although other bhikkhus may.  Once they have received it, the first
   bhikkhu may not eat any of it.

     If the first bhikkhu, instead of merely touching the food or its
   vessel, actually moves it from its place, then neither he nor any of
   the other bhikkhus may receive it.  Thus if a donor brings a pot of
   stew to the monastery, and one of the bhikkhus, curious to see what
   is going to be offered that day, tilts the pot to peek inside, none
   of the bhikkhus may eat the food, and the donor must either give it
   to the novices and any attendants at the monastery, if there are
   any, throw it to the dogs, or take it home.

     Many Communities do not accept the Commentary's opinions on this
   point, and with good reason:  The last-mentioned penalty -- even
   though the offense is a dukkata -- is stronger than that imposed by
   any of the nissaggiya pacittiya rules, and penalizes perfectly
   innocent people:  the other bhikkhus and the donor of the food as
   well.  An alternate opinion, which many Communities follow, is that
   if a bhikkhu takes -- with the thought of eating it -- food that he
   knows has not been properly offered, he may not then formally
   receive it from an unordained person, but other bhikkhus may.  Once
   it has been properly received, any bhikkhu -- including the first --
   may eat from it.

     This is an area in which none of the texts gives an authoritative
   answer, and a wise policy is to adhere to the views of the Community
   in which one is living, as long as they fit into the framework
   provided by the Canon.

     5. When food becomes "ungiven."  The Commentary to Parajika 1, in
   its discussion of what to do when a bhikkhu's sex changes
   spontaneously (!), lists seven instances in which an edible given to
   a bhikkhu becomes "ungiven" -- i.e., no bhikkhu may pick it up and
   eat it until it is formally given again.  The seven are --

     (a) The original recipient undergoes a spontaneous sex change.
     (b) He dies.
     (c) He disrobes and becomes a lay person.
     (d) He becomes a low person.  (According to the Sub-commentary,
       this means that he commits a parajika.)
     (e) He gives it to an unordained person.
     (f) He abandons it, having lost interest in it.
     (g) The item is stolen.  (The Sub-commentary, in discussing this
       last point, refers solely to cases of out-and-out thievery, and
       not to the mere act of touching or moving.)

     Of these seven instances, the treatise we are discussing deals
   with only two -- (e) and (f) -- in a series of examples, as follows:

     A bhikkhu with rice in his hand offers it to a novice:  The rice
       remains "given" until the novice takes it.

     A bhikkhu places food in a vessel and, no longer interested in it,
       tells a novice to take it:  The food is "ungiven" as soon as he
       says this.  This point, however, does not apply to food the
       bhikkhu leaves in his own bowl or in any Community vessel from
       which the bhikkhus are served or in which their food is prepared.
       If he leaves food in such a vessel, he is not regarded as having
       abandoned interest in it.

     A bhikkhu sets his bowl on a stand and tells a novice to take some
       rice from it.  Assuming that the novice's hand is clean -- i.e.,
       not "contaminated" with any food from his own bowl that might
       fall into the bhikkhu's bowl -- the rice remaining in the
       bhikkhu's bowl after the novice has taken his portion is still
       "given."  Technically speaking, the treatise says, the rice taken
       by the novice still belongs to the bhikkhu until the novice puts
       it in his own bowl.  Thus if the novice begins to take a second
       handful and, being told by the bhikkhu, "That's enough," puts the
       second handful back in the bhikkhu's bowl; or if any grains of
       rice from the first handful happen to fall back into the
       bhikkhu's bowl while the novice is lifting it out, all the rice
       in the bhikkhu's bowl is still "given."

     A bhikkhu holding a stick of sugar cane tells a novice to cut off
       a piece from the other end:  The remaining section is still
       "given."

     A bhikkhu places pieces of hardened molasses on a tray and tells
       other bhikkhus and novices to help themselves from the tray:  If
       the bhikkhus and novices simply pick up their portions and take
       them, the remaining hardened molasses is still "given."  If,
       though, a novice picks up one piece, puts it down, picks up
       another piece, puts it down, and so on, the hardened molasses
       remaining on the tray becomes "ungiven."

     The Sub-commentary explains this by saying that the novice picking
   up the molasses is thinking, "This is mine.  I'll take it," then
   changes his mind, puts it down and then lays claim to another piece,
   and so on.  Thus, only the pieces that the novice claims and then
   abandons in this way become "ungiven."  The other pieces on the tray
   still count as "given."

     This last example, when taken out of context, has led to the
   widespread view that food given to a bhikkhu becomes "ungiven" if an
   unordained person touches or moves it.  Viewed in context, though,
   the example does not imply this at all.  The bhikkhu has offered the
   hardened molasses to the novice, and the novice in picking it up
   simply completes the factors for case (e): "The bhikkhu gives the
   item to an unordained person."  The example of the novice taking
   rice from a bhikkhu's bowl shows that even when a bhikkhu offers
   food to an unordained person, the mere fact that the person touches
   or moves the food does not necessarily make the food "ungiven."

     Thus in cases where the bhikkhu is not giving away the food and
   has not abandoned interest in it -- and the unordained person is not
   stealing it -- there is no reason to hold that "given" food becomes
   "ungiven" simply when an unordained person touches or moves it.
   This is another area, though, where different Communities hold
   different views, and where the wise policy is to conform to the
   observances of the Community in which one is living.

     These points from the Commentary's treatise may seem like a lot of
   hair-splitting, but remember that the gift of food ranks with sexual
   temptation as one of the largest issues in a bhikkhu's -- or
   anyone's -- life.  If questions of this sort hadn't arisen in
   practice, no one would have bothered to compile the treatise in the
   first place.  Given the cursory manner in which the Vibhanga treats
   this rule, and given the large "gray" areas surrounding the act of
   giving -- modern anthropology started with this subject and will
   probably never finish with it -- it's good to have those areas
   spelled out in detail so as to minimize any disharmony that might
   arise in a Community when its members find themselves in gray
   situations.

     Still, as we have noted several times, the guidelines in the
   Commentary's treatise are not binding, and the wise policy is to
   follow the standards of the Community in which one is living, as
   long as they fall within the framework of the Canon.

       Summary:  Eating food that has not been formally given is a
       pacittiya offense.

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